fig3

Figure 3. Micro-scale transport mechanisms of TWPs. The schematic illustrates the interplay between surface charge (dispersed vs. aggregated states), environmental ageing (surface oxidation, EPFR generation, biofilm formation, and density/hydrophobicity changes), and size sorting, which collectively govern the settling, resuspension, and fate of TWPs in the water column [created by Nanobanana (Gemini 2.5 Flash Image)]. TWPs: Tire wear particles; EPFR: environmentally persistent free radical.