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Figure 3. Roles of Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). SCFAs counter vascular aging by enhancing intestinal barrier integrity, modulating mucosal immunity, regulating lipid metabolism, and improving endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) function. They also help maintain blood-pressure homeostasis by coordinating endothelium-smooth muscle vasomotor responses in resistance vessels, modulating renin release and nervous system. (Created in BioRender. Raitasi, E. (2026) https://BioRender.com/8wwkm3n). MCT1: Monocarboxylate transporter 1; SMCT1: sodium-coupled monocarboxylate transporter 1; mTOR: mammalian target of rapamycin; STAT3: signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; HIF-1: hypoxia-inducible factor-1; NPC1L1: niemann-pick-c1-like-1; HDAC: histone deacetylase; FOXO3: forkhead box O3; NuRD: nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase; S6K: S6 kinase; OXPHOS: oxidative phosphorylation; ALDH1A2: aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family member A2; FOXP3: forkhead box P3; T-bet: T-box expressed in T cells; IFN-γ: interferon-γ; RORγt: retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor γt; Blimp-1: B-lymphocyte-induced maturation protein-1; AHR: aryl hydrocarbon receptor; CYP7A1: cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase; PPAR-α: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α; NF-κB: nuclear factor-κB; ApoA1: apolipoprotein A1; Sp1: specificity protein 1; ABCA1: ATP-binding cassette transporter A1; SIRT1: silent information regulator 1; Nrf2: nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; PI3K: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; Akt: protein kinase B; RAAS: renin angiotensin aldosterone system.