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Figure 2. Illustration of the four phases during the wound healing process and the relevant functional mechanisms of L-EVs for accelerating wound repair and regeneration. The indicated time ranges are approximate estimates based on general wound-healing models. These phases are not strictly sequential and may overlap considerably depending on the wound type, size, and pathological conditions. Created in BioRender. Shi, Y. (2026). Akt: Protein kinase B; COL III: collagen type III; EV: extracellular vesicle; IL: interleukin; L-EV: Lactobacillus-derived extracellular vesicle; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa B; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; SMA: smooth muscle actin; TGF-β: transforming growth factor beta; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor alpha.