REFERENCES

1. Bisri, S. Z.; Shimizu, S.; Nakano, M.; Iwasa, Y. Endeavor of iontronics: from fundamentals to applications of ion-controlled electronics. Adv. Mater. 2017, 29, 1607054.

2. Ahn, C. H.; Bhattacharya, A.; Di Ventra, M.; et al. Electrostatic modification of novel materials. Rev. Mod. Phys. 2006, 78, 1185-212.

3. Li, X.; Wei, Y.; Gao, X.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, Z. L.; Wei, D. Harnessing triboiontronic Maxwell’s demon by triboelectric-induced polarization for efficient energy-information flow. Joule 2025, 9, 101888.

4. Leighton, C. Electrolyte-based ionic control of functional oxides. Nat. Mater. 2018, 18, 13-8.

5. Rivnay, J.; Inal, S.; Salleo, A.; Owens, R. M.; Berggren, M.; Malliaras, G. G. Organic electrochemical transistors. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2018, 3, 17086.

6. Ueno, K.; Nakamura, S.; Shimotani, H.; et al. Discovery of superconductivity in KTaO3 by electrostatic carrier doping. Nat. Nanotechnol. 2011, 6, 408-12.

7. Ueno, K.; Nakamura, S.; Shimotani, H.; et al. Electric-field-induced superconductivity in an insulator. Nat. Mater. 2008, 7, 855-8.

8. Nakano, M.; Shibuya, K.; Okuyama, D.; et al. Collective bulk carrier delocalization driven by electrostatic surface charge accumulation. Nature 2012, 487, 459-62.

9. Jeong, J.; Aetukuri, N.; Graf, T.; Schladt, T. D.; Samant, M. G.; Parkin, S. S. P. Suppression of metal-insulator transition in VO2 by electric field-induced oxygen vacancy formation. Science 2013, 339, 1402-5.

10. Li, M.; Han, W.; Jiang, X.; Jeong, J.; Samant, M. G.; Parkin, S. S. P. Suppression of ionic liquid gate-induced metallization of SrTiO3(001) by oxygen. Nano. Lett. 2013, 13, 4675-8.

11. Wang, Y.; Cai, G.; Chen, Z.; et al. Transparent conducting TiO2 thin film induced by electric-field controlled hydrogen ion intercalation. Adv. Elect. Materials. 2024, 10, 2400029.

12. Lu, N.; Zhang, P.; Zhang, Q.; et al. Electric-field control of tri-state phase transformation with a selective dual-ion switch. Nature 2017, 546, 124-8.

13. Yang, Z.; Qu, K.; Zhao, Y.; et al. In situ atomic-resolution imaging of water vapor-driven multistep oxidation dynamics in strontium cobaltite. Sci. Adv. 2025, 11, eadx8890.

14. Perez-Muñoz, A. M.; Schio, P.; Poloni, R.; et al. In operando evidence of deoxygenation in ionic liquid gating of YBa2Cu3O7-X. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2016, 114, 215-20.

15. Liang, J.; Postiglione, W. M.; Van Someren, M.; et al. Limits on topotactic transformation speed in electrolyte-gate La0.5Sr0.5CoO3-δ electrochemical transistors. ACS. Nano. 2025, 19, 27782-93.

16. Chakraborty, R. D.; Liang, J.; Nandakumaran, N.; et al. High metal-insulator topotactic cycling endurance in electrochemically gated La0.5Sr0.5CoO3-δ probed by humidity-dependent operando Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. ACS. Nano. 2025, 19, 17627-39.

17. Yin, Z.; Wang, J.; Wang, J.; et al. Compressive-strain-facilitated fast oxygen migration with reversible topotactic transformation in La0.5Sr0.5CoOx via all-solid-state electrolyte gating. ACS. Nano. 2022, 16, 14632-43.

18. Zhang, Y.; Postiglione, W. M.; Xie, R.; et al. Wide-range continuous tuning of the thermal conductivity of La0.5Sr0.5CoO3-δ films via room-temperature ion-gel gating. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 2626.

19. Lefler, B. M.; Postiglione, W. M.; Leighton, C.; May, S. J. Voltage control of patterned metal/insulator properties in oxide/oxyfluoride lateral perovskite heterostructures via ion gel gating. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2208434.

20. Yan, F.; Korostelev, V.; Cho, E.; et al. Ionic-liquid-gating-induced hydrogenation in epitaxial strontium ferrite. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2316608.

21. Postiglione, W. M.; Yu, G.; Chaturvedi, V.; et al. Mechanisms of hysteresis and reversibility across the voltage-driven perovskite-brownmillerite transformation in electrolyte-gated ultrathin La0.5Sr0.5CoO3-δ. ACS. Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2024, 16, 19184-97.

22. Walter, J.; Yu, G.; Yu, B.; et al. Ion-gel-gating-induced oxygen vacancy formation in epitaxial La0.5Sr0.5CoO3-δ films from in operando X-ray and neutron scattering. Phys. Rev. Materials. 2017, 1, 071403.

23. Han, H.; Sharma, A.; Meyerheim, H. L.; et al. Control of oxygen vacancy ordering in brownmillerite thin films via ionic liquid gating. ACS. Nano. 2022, 16, 6206-14.

24. Hu, Y.; Wei, L.; Chen, H.; et al. Quantifying dynamic changes of oxygen nonstoichiometry and formation of surface phases of SrCoOx electrocatalysts by Operando characterizations. ACS. Nano. 2025, 19, 13999-4009.

25. Wan, Q.; Sharbati, M. T.; Erickson, J. R.; Du, Y.; Xiong, F. Emerging artificial synaptic devices for neuromorphic computing. Adv. Mater. Technol. 2019, 4, 1900037.

26. Zheng, L.; Zhu, X.; Xiao, K. Photo-iontronics: mechanisms and manipulation for neuromorphic vision. Iontronics 2026, 2.

27. Shi, J.; Ha, S. D.; Zhou, Y.; Schoofs, F.; Ramanathan, S. A correlated nickelate synaptic transistor. Nat. Commun. 2013, 4, 2676.

28. Balakrishna Pillai, P.; De Souza, M. M. Nanoionics-based three-terminal synaptic device using zinc oxide. ACS. Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2017, 9, 1609-18.

29. Chen, K.; Shih, L.; Mao, S.; Chen, J. Mimicking pain-perceptual sensitization and pattern recognition based on capacitance- and conductance-regulated neuroplasticity in neural network. ACS. Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2023, 15, 9593-603.

30. Lee, J.; Nikam, R. D.; Kwak, M.; Kwak, H.; Kim, S.; Hwang, H. Improvement of synaptic properties in oxygen-based synaptic transistors due to the accelerated ion migration in sub-stoichiometric channels. Adv. Elect. Mater. 2021, 7, 2100219.

31. Nikam, R. D.; Kwak, M.; Hwang, H. All-solid-state oxygen ion electrochemical random-access memory for neuromorphic computing. Adv. Elect. Materials. 2021, 7, 2100142.

32. Huang, H. Y.; Ge, C.; Zhang, Q. H.; et al. Electrolyte-gated synaptic transistor with oxygen ions. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2019, 29, 1902702.

33. Miao, T.; Cui, B.; Huang, C.; et al. Gate-tunable anisotropic oxygen ion migration in SrCoOx: toward emerging oxide-based artificial synapses. Adv. Intell. Syst. 2023, 5, 2200287.

34. Fuller, E. J.; Gabaly, F. E.; Léonard, F.; et al. Li‐ion synaptic transistor for low power analog computing. Adv. Mater. 2016, 29, 1604310.

35. Li, Y.; Fuller, E. J.; Asapu, S.; et al. Low-voltage, CMOS-free synaptic memory based on LiXTiO2 redox transistors. ACS. Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2019, 11, 38982-92.

36. Yang, C. S.; Shang, D. S.; Liu, N.; et al. All-solid-state synaptic transistor with ultralow conductance for neuromorphic computing. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2018, 28, 1804170.

37. Lee, J.; Nikam, R. D.; Lim, S.; Kwak, M.; Hwang, H. Excellent synaptic behavior of lithium-based nano-ionic transistor based on optimal WO2.7 stoichiometry with high ion diffusivity. Nanotechnology 2020, 31, 235203.

38. Li, Y.; Lu, J.; Shang, D.; et al. Oxide-based electrolyte-gated transistors for spatiotemporal information processing. Adv. Mater. 2020, 32, 2003018.

39. Xu, H.; Shang, D.; Luo, Q.; et al. A low-power vertical dual-gate neurotransistor with short-term memory for high energy-efficient neuromorphic computing. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 6385.

40. Li, Y.; Xuan, Z.; Lu, J.; et al. One Transistor one electrolyte-gated transistor based spiking neural network for power-efficient neuromorphic computing system. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2100042.

41. Wang, Q.; Zhao, T.; Zhao, C.; et al. Solid-state electrolyte gate transistor with ion doping for biosignal classification of neuromorphic computing. Adv. Elect. Materials. 2022, 8, 2101260.

42. Liang, X.; Luo, Y.; Pei, Y.; Wang, M.; Liu, C. Multimode transistors and neural networks based on ion-dynamic capacitance. Nat. Electron. 2022, 5, 859-69.

43. Cui, J.; An, F.; Qian, J.; et al. CMOS-compatible electrochemical synaptic transistor arrays for deep learning accelerators. Nat. Electron. 2023, 6, 292-300.

44. Liu, K.; Li, J.; Li, F.; et al. A multi-terminal ion-controlled transistor with multifunctionality and wide temporal dynamics for reservoir computing. Nano. Res. 2023, 17, 4444-53.

45. Kim, S.; Jin, D.; Kim, J.; Baek, D.; Kim, H.; Yu, H. Enhancement of the proton-electron coupling effect by an ionic oxide-based proton reservoir for high-performance artificial synaptic transistors. ACS. Nano. 2025, 19, 535-45.

46. Li, P.; Zhang, M.; Zhou, Q.; et al. Reconfigurable optoelectronic transistors for multimodal recognition. Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 3257.

47. Zhu, L. Q.; Wan, C. J.; Guo, L. Q.; Shi, Y.; Wan, Q. Artificial synapse network on inorganic proton conductor for neuromorphic systems. Nat. Commun. 2014, 5, 3158.

48. Liu, Y. H.; Zhu, L. Q.; Feng, P.; Shi, Y.; Wan, Q. Freestanding artificial synapses based on laterally proton-coupled transistors on chitosan membranes. Adv. Mater. 2015, 27, 5599-604.

49. Zhu, K.; Wen, C.; Aljarb, A. A.; et al. The development of integrated circuits based on two-dimensional materials. Nat. Electron. 2021, 4, 775-85.